(13-2, p. 26)

In two previous articles for Korean Culture in this series on early Koryo Buddhist sculpture I discussed works from the period of King Wang Kon (Koryo T'aejo, r. 918-943) into the mid-tenth century from various regions.1 This article continues the exploration of early Koryo Buddhist sculpture made during the mid to third quarter of the tenth century, concentrating on a number of seated iron Buddha images, especially the two largest colossal iron Buddhas in Korea. Sculpture from the middle of the tenth century continues to show considerable stylistic diversity. This variety seems, at least in part, to be related to the complexity of styles and artistic movements in Chinese Buddhist art of the Five Dynasties (906-960/970 A.D.). As I noted in my previous articles, there is ample evidence of a vigorous interchange between early Koryo and China. At the same time, the character of Koryo sculpture is becoming more distinct from that of the preceding Unified Silla dynasty, which had exerted a substantial lingering influence on many sculptures during the period of Koryo's founder, Wang Kon.

Seated iron Buddha (B) from Wonsonggun, Soch'omyon, Kangwondo. National Museum of Korea.

In addition to the highly individualistic, totemistic type of image seen particu (13-2, p. 28) larly in the "maebul" cliff images or in colossal stone images—a group I hope to address in a subsequent article—there appear to be two main stylistic types among the sculptures of this period, which are mostly iron and stone seated Buddhas. The more prevalent type is the powerful, muscularly proportioned image descended from the T'ang-Silla traditions, but which now has a distinctly new Five Dynasties-Koryo interpretation. Another type is gentler in appearance and seems to relate mostly to the artistic styles of the southern part of China from the Five Dynasties and early Sung. The images discussed below are mostly of the former type, but, interestingly, the second type begins to appear and becomes more popular later in the century.

I. The Colossal Iron Buddha of Powonsa in South Ch'ungch'ong Province and a Group of Buddhas from Wonsong County, Kangwon Province

One of the most unusual and impressive iron Buddhas in Korea is the colossal seated Buddha of Powonsa. It is 257 cm. in height—the second largest surviving iron Buddha, only a few centimeters shorter than the better known Kwangju iron Buddha. For years, along with a number of other statues, this Buddha was kept in the enclosed corridor of the Kunjong Hall at Kyongbok Palace in Seoul, but it has recently been moved to the newly opened National Museum building in Seoul.

According to the recent investigations of Mr. Kang Woo-bang of the National Museum in Seoul, records indicate that this image came from the site of the Powon temple in Unsangun, South Ch'ungch'ong province, in March of 1918. Powonsa had been an important and prosperous temple active from the Three Kingdoms into the Choson period. When the site was investigated in 1916-17 the temple was in ruins, but a government report at that time indicated the existence of the remains of six items, including the stele of the pagoda of Pobin kuksa and "one iron Buddha," presumably this Powonsa image.

This big iron Buddha is a splendid example of the "powerful" type of sculpture of early Koryo. Although it is in the lineage of the T'ang-Silla stylistic tradition of athletically proportioned form and tightly fitting garments, it is innovatively different, having a forbidding sternness and a tense, wiry strength not characteristic of earlier styles. Unlike the typical Unified Silla style of the eighth and ninth centuries, for example, the body surface is hard and tightly muscular rather than softly solid. The upper arms are proportionately a little short and the shoulders conspicuously broad and rounded; both have a bulging shape which seems a bit unnatural and energetically tense. The torso has some contrast between the swelling upper chest and flat abdomen, but it is treated as a single powerful unit. As a whole the image has the sense of condensed inner alertness, which is a major factor in producing the effect of dramatically expressive energy that transcends the ordinary.

Seated iron Buddha (c) from Wongsonggun, Sach'omyon, Kangwondo, National Museum of Korea, Seoul.

Pleasing Aspect The drapery—thin and fitting tightly to the body like a second skin—stretches across the body, leaving the right shoulder bare. The folds form a few wide and flat, but very shallow, diagonal step-like pleats. These folds are a pleasing aspect of the style, as they appear like sensitive, delicate, sharp lines stretching over an incongruously powerful, muscular body. The thin, diagonal flap of the turned-over edge of the sanghati robe at the left shoulder and over the right ankle as well as the loop-like fold at the crook of the elbow are touches that relieve the rather austere and plain simplicity of the style. Perhaps the most startling feature of this image is the large, rectangular head with its broad, flat face dominated by sharp, strongly linear features. Long, horizontal eyebrows raised in

All are also made by a similar technique, using the typical sectioned mould method seen in most Korean iron images—hence the appearance of numerous seams. The finished images were apparently covered in lacquer to make them smooth, and then gilded. Buddha "C" preserves traces of both the lacquer and gold. Because of the casting technique, (13-2, p. 29) the iron was very thin in places and easily became worn, creating holes, such as in the right leg of Buddha "B", which has since been repaired. The ushnisha (cranial protuberance) of the Powonsa colossal Buddha is made of bronze, probably, according to Mr. Kang Woo-bang, because the iron did not flow sufficiently to this place (which would have been at the bottom since the image was cast upside down). Also, the hands of the colossal Buddha were cast separately and the original ones are missing. Original hands only remain in Buddha "C"; all the others are repaired. Apparently the right hands of all these Buddhas were originally in the bhumisparsa (earth witness) gesture.

Distinctive Group

Certain stylistic features of the Powonsa colossal Buddha and Wonsonggun group of iron Buddhas relate to other Koryo sculptures produced around the mid-tenth century, although they form a relatively distinct style group. For example, the wide, shallow folds of the drapery are stylistically similar to those in the garment of the standing Buddha of Kaet'aesa, which, like Powonsa, is also in South Ch'ungch'ong province. There is good evidence that this Kaet'aesa image dates between 936-940 A.D.2 Other elements, such as the patterning and tension of the wiry lines winding around the left upper arm, appear in several other images dating to the mid-tenth century, notably, the iron Buddhas of Tanhosa and Taewonsa in Ch'ungju city, the stone Pirosana Buddha of Kagyonsa near Ch'ungju, and the iron Buddhas of Changgoksa, all in North Ch'ungch'ong province.3

Furthermore, there is an apparent close similarity with some Five Dynasties sculptural styles in China, especially with the style of sculptures probably dating from ca. 920s from Cave 261 at the Thousand Buddha Caves in Tun-huang, Kansu province. The tense and tight mass of the body, the single, wide lines of the drapery, and the configuration of slanting folds on the legs and winding lines on the upper arms of the seated Buddha from Cave 261 are all similar to the Powonsa and three smaller Wonsonggun bhumisparsa mudra iron Buddhas. The squarish flat face and highly linear, thinly proportioned facial features of these Korean images is a remarkable style that also appears in a Chinese stone Bodhisattva image discussed in the 1988 article in Korean Culture as a ca. mid-tenth century Five Dynasties work, probably from the north, with facial type similar to the Pirosana Buddha of Changgoksa. The face of this Changgoksa image also resembles the facial style of the Powonsa and Wonsonggun groups. These stylistic correspondences suggest not only a relation with these "northern" Chinese sculptural styles, but also help to uphold a probable mid-tenth century stylistic dating for the Powonsa image and the three Buddhas in bhumisparsa mudra from Wonsonggun, Kangwondo.

The mid-tenth century stylistic dating for the Powonsa colossal Buddha has some interesting implications. For example, such a dating could indicate the possibility that this Buddha is the main image of the "Sakyamuni golden triad" mentioned in the funerary stele for Pobin kuksa, which is dated to 978 (the third year of the reign of Kyongjong, r. 975-981). The stele recounts some of the history of the famous monk Tanmun (Pobin kuksa, 900-975 A.D.), who resided at Powonsa and was an influential friend and dharma master of King Kwangjong (r. 949-975 A.D.). The stele specifically mentions the making of a Sakyamuni Buddha golden triad at (13-2, p. 30) Powonsa by Tanmun in honor of Kwangjong's enthronement and on behalf of the king's longevity.

Seated Buddha from cave 261, Makao Cave Temples, Tun-huang (Kansu, northwest China), ca 920s, stucco.

Confidant of the King From other details of the stele inscription, it is clear that Tanmun was the confidant of King Kwangjong. Throughout his reign Kwangjong continued to honor Tanmun, giving him the title of Hondo Samjung Taesa in 968 A.D. and the title of Pobin kuksa in 975 A.D. The king also invited him in 968 to reside in Kaesong, the capital of Koryo. When Tanmun left the capital in 975 to return to Powonsa, just a few months before he died, the king and the court went to the outskirts to see him off. These as well as other factors indicate the high esteem the king had for Tanmun and Tanmun's close association with the Powonsa and Kwangjong.

Since the colossal iron Buddha from the Powonsa site stylistically dates to the mid-tenth century, it could be the main figure of the Sakyamuni triad Tanmun made on the king's behalf in ca. 949 (although Tanmun's stele inscription does not specifically mention that it is a colossal image triad). Originally, this iron Buddha would most likely have been covered with gold as was customary (Buddha "C" of the Wonsonggun group still has some gold remains), thereby fitting the "golden" designation in the inscription. The other two images of the triad are apparently lost. If the colossal iron Buddha is not the Sakyamuni image of Tanmun's triad, it is not implausible to think that such an important, costly image as this colossal iron Buddha would at least have been made around the time when such an influential monk as Tanmun was connected with Powonsa.

Buddha from Bodhgaya (Central India), Pala dynasty, 9th cenury, black basalt stone.

Resemblances with Indian Sculptures Another significant and interesting factor of the Powonsa colossal Buddha and its stylistically related group from Kangwondo is their close stylistic similarities with some ninth and tenth century Indian sculptures, particularly the Pala dynasty images from the Bodhgaya and Nalanda area of Bihar in Central India. One example is a seated stone Buddha of ca. ninth century from Bodhgaya, site of the Buddha's enlightenment, and now in the Gaya Museum. It has some distinguishing features which are strikingly similar to elements in this group of Korean iron Buddhas. These include the skin-tight fitting of the robe, the wide, flat folds and thin lines of the drapery, the tense, muscular shape and swelling, rounded limbs of the body, and the strange, bold features of the face. For example, with regard to the latter point, the eyes of the Gaya Museum Buddha are long and have a slightly drooping upper lid. This type of eye appears in Koryo sculpture at least (13-2, p. 31) from the time of the Kaet'aesa images and is similar to the eyes of the Powonsa iron Buddha.

Even closer resemblances appear in a tenth-century Pala sculpture of a very typical bronze seated Buddha from the "Kurkihar hoard" (found at Kurkihar, near Nalanda in Bihar, Central India). This is particularly evident in the diagonal scheme and wide folds of the drapery. In addition, the features of the face, narrow forehead, swelling muscles of the upper arm, the arm and hand positions, the configuration of the legs and drapery folds over the legs, and the pleated folds of the fan-shaped cloth beneath the crossed legs are all very similar. It would almost seem that the Korean artists somehow had good knowledge of more or less contemporary Buddha Sculptures of the Pala dynasty (mid-eighth to late twelfth century), one of the most important and prolific schools of Indian Buddhist art at this time. The monasteries of Nalanda, Odantapuri and others in Central India were flourishing and were renowned throughout the Asian world as the premier Buddhist "universities" of the time. It would not be surprising that the artistic styles of the Pala school would be regarded with esteem in East Asia (as they were in India, Nepal and Tibet), and emulated as a style originating from the very heart of the Buddhist world.

Indian Monks in Korea

It is known from written records that two Indian monks came to Koryo during Wang Kon's reign (r. 918-943). The Indian monk Mahura came to Koryo in 929 AD., and the Indian monk Hongbom taesa, who is recorded as coming from Magadha (Central India), came in 938 A.D. Possibly their presence, particularly that of Hongbom taesa from Magadha, which was the homeland of the Pala dynasty and of the major Buddhist monasteries of India, could have stimulated an interest in Indian styles of Buddhist imagery. Since Tanmun was an important figure at the Koryo court under Wang Kon (he is known to have prayed for the queen, Kwangjong's mother, when she was pregnant with Kwangjong) as well as with Kwangjong, it could be that he was familiar with certain Indian images which may have found their way to the Koryo capital, and that he may even have helped to choose such a prototype for the Powonsa image. With the flourishing trade of early Koryo, it is also quite possible for models of Indian Buddhist imagery to have been brought to Korea by various travelers, monks, or merchants. Naturally, it is also possible that this style came to Korea from China, which may have had its own ties with the Pala and its art. Whichever way, however, the fact remains that there is a strong stylistic linkage of these iron Buddhas with contemporaneous Pala Indian Buddhist sculpture. These factors certainly suggest the wide, "international" extent of the sources for some early Koryo Buddhist art, and this international outlook may at least partly account for the diversity and eclecticism witnessed in early Koryo Buddhist sculpture.

The Powonsa and Wonsonggun iron Buddhas certainly form one of the major style groups of mid-tenth century Koryo sculpture. The images from around Ch'ungju dating to the same period are another distinct, though also partly stylistically related, group of this time. The Ch'ungju group appears to have some relation to styles known in the Chin-hua (Hangchou) area of southern China. Another distinct interpretion of the mid-tenth century taut, energetic style seems to appear in the seated iron Buddha from Sonwondong, Yongh'ongun, Imgomyon, near Kyongju in North Kyongsang province.4 Although it has some obvious repairs to the right arm, neck and left hand, the image may be an example of the regional style of North Kyongsang province. It shows an emphasis on the naturalistically modelled torso and on tense, rib-like folds which are both different from the Ch'ungju and Powonsa/Wonsonggun groups, despite the overall similarity of their general style. These differences in the Yongch'on'gun image derive from earlier Unified Silla sculpture, particularly elements of the great Sokkuram Buddha, which probably continued to exert some influence on the sculptures of the Kyongju area. The Yongch'on'gun image is an interesting example from an area which does not seem to have been active in making Buddhist images earlier in the Koryo period. These examples suggest that regional distinctions in sculptural style continue to exist in the mid-tenth century.

The style of the Powonsa/Wonsonggun images also finds some correspondences in Japanese sculpture from the second half of the tenth century. For example, the rather plain style of garment with its wide folds and the sharp linear facial features with unusually thin and drawn mouth, narrow forehead and short nose, are stylistically related to some Japanese images, particularly of the "natabori" type, such as the Yakushi (Medicine Buddha) triad from the Hojobo in Kanagawa. The apparent relation between the art of early Koryo and Fujiwara Japan merits more intensive investigation and will no doubt throw more light in the future on the sources of the diverse styles of tenth and eleventh century Japanese Buddhist art.

Buddha from Kurkihar (Bihar, Central India), Pala dynasty, 10th century, bronze, ht. 22.5 cm.

The 'Gentle' Type As a final, but nevertheless significant, point regarding the group of Kangwondo Buddhas, we can note that in the old in situ photo, behind the "powerful" style iron Buddha "B", another seated Buddha "D" is partly shown. The present whereabouts or existence of this image is not known to me. It (13-2, p. 32) can be identified from this photo as a Yaksa (Medicine) Buddha holding the medicine bowl in his right hand. Although it appears that the image forms part of the same group and is generally of the same style as the three other iron Buddhas at the site, it is also distinctly different in type from the broad-shouldered, muscular images of the "powerful" type discussed above. Instead, emphasis is placed on a tall, narrow torso and long face. The drapery is looser and less form-revealing and the

This type, which can be called the "gentle" type from the general effect it creates, can probably be associated with developments in south China in the tenth century, although there are not many images remaining from south China to clearly indicate this. However, one famous image—the standing Sakyamuni wooden image said to have been brought to Japan from south China by the monk Chonen in 987 and now kept in Seiryoji in Kyoto—does provide an important indication of at least one particular style and type of southern Chinese sculptures from this period. In fact, the type is quite similar in some respects to the Yaksa Buddha. In particular one notes the narrow body and the overall design of narrowly spaced parallel folds as well as the shape and features of the face, which are relatively similar. Naturally, the Seiryoji Shaka is a special image (purporting to replicate the famous image of King Udayana made during the Buddha's lifetime) and it was made later in the tenth century. Nevertheless, there is enough stylistic correspondence to consider that the Korean Buddha may represent an earlier form of a style current in south China of which the Seiryoji Shaka also at least partially partakes. It may be that the narrow, parallel, delicate fold style is a particular south China style; certainly there are some images in Japan, notably the Muroji group (the seated Shaka, the standing Shaka and the Jizo) probably dating from the second half of the ninth century, which at least indicates such a style was current.

Seated iron Buddha, from Ch'ungung-ri (Hasach'ung), Kyonggido, ht.288 cm, National Museum of Korea, Seoul.

(13-2, p. 33) Coexisting Types From the Kangwondo group (Buddhas A-D) it seems that the two types, powerful and gentle, coexist simultaneously in Korea by the mid-tenth century. They may even have been used together, in one temple or in the same ensemble, although this may be hard to justify in this case, because the images may not be in their original positions in the old photos. Certainly by the end of the tenth century other Korean sculptures in the "gentle" style appear, but even by the end of the third quarter of the tenth century a more humanistic, gentle style begins to pervade the "powerful" types, as can be seen in the other colossal iron Buddha of this period from near Kwangju city in Kyonggido.

II. The Kwangju (Kyonggido) Colossal Seated Iron Buddha and Some Related Images

The seated Buddha from Kwangju is the largest iron image (H. 288 cm.) now surviving in Korea. This splendid monumental seated Buddha was originally from a temple site, now ruined, in Ch'ungung-ri (Hasach'ang-ri) near Kwangju, southeast of Seoul in Kyonggido. Its halo is said to have been broken during the Chosen dynasty, but parts of its pedestal still remain at the original site. The image, which remains in excellent condition (only the hands are modern repair), has now been removed to the National Museum in Seoul.

Though impressive and generally of the powerful type like the colossal Buddha from Powonsa, the Kwangju Buddha shows a softening of the severe tensions of the Powonsa style of the mid-tenth century. The body, though broad-shouldered with well rounded limbs and some muscular indication of the upper and lower torso, nevertheless has an increased sense of (13-2, p. 34) relaxed ease. The drapery folds, primarily sharp creases on the left arm and torso and short step-folds on the legs, have a slightly looser and a more broken, disparate effect compared with the long, unbroken folds of the Powonsa colossal-image style. The face of the Kwangju Buddha retains some remnants of the sharp facial features noted in the Powonsa image, but the more graceful proportions and softer, oval shaped face are compatible with the overall stylistic change towards a more gently human portrayal.

Yaksa Buddha, Kwangju, 977 A.D., stone relief.

Similar stylistic characteristics appear in the stone relief sculpture of a Yaksa Buddha carved in a large boulder above a natural spring also near Kwangju in Kyonggi province. Near the image's right shoulder is carved an inscription, which is dated 977 A.D. Despite some possibility that this relief may have been recarved at a later time to make its lines clearer, the basic form seems compatible with the time of the inscription. For example, some elements of the 977 Yaksa, especially the body proportions, long face, and gentle demeanor, relate to the style of the seated Buddha from the Shih-shih stone cave in Hang-chou dated to the 940s or 950s. The Kwangju Yaksa is an elegant seated image with halos of concentric circles and a graceful multi-tiered lotus pedestal on top of a broad three-part structural pedestal. The proportions are similar to the

Stylistic Links

The seated iron Buddha at Sonwonsa in Namwon city, South Cholla province, can be linked stylistically with the Kwangju images dating to the end of the third quarter of the tenth century. Although the hands of this image are new, the face recently repainted, and body regilded, the original body form can be seen to have a similar sense of relaxed ease in its muscular shape. The drapery has clusters of creased lines and step folds, the same types used in the Kwangju colossal iron Buddha. While adhering to a loose grouping, the folds in the Sonwonsa image nevertheless have a slightly broken and scattered appearance similar to the Kwangju images. The fold groups over the legs with their rhythmically waving movement are a particularly attractive feature of the Sonwonsa image. The fan-shaped spread of soft pleats under the crossed legs is quite similar in portrayal to the same motif in the colossal Kwangju image. The manner of crossing the sanghati over the chest in the Sonwonsa image is very unusual, but the flat strips along the edge is a style seen in many of the Lohan images in the Yen-hsia tung in Hang-chou, south China, dating to the same period. The Kwangju colossal iron Buddha also has a flat, though slightly narrower, border-like strip at the edge of the sanghati passing over the left side of the chest. These details as well as the general mode of relaxed, gentle demeanor seems to group these works together and distinguish them from the tenser styles of Koryo sculpture in the mid-tenth century.

The colossal iron Buddhas of Kwangju and the Powonsa are two especially rare and important monuments from around the middle and third quarter of the tenth century, respectively. Not only are they magnificent representatives of the styles of their time and help in establishing the dating of other images, they are also testimony to the continuation of a monumental trend in early Koryo Buddhist art as witnessed in the Mt. Kaya Amit'a maebul, the Koch'ang standing stone Buddha, and the Kaet'aesa stone triad. In fact, this trend of grandiose size does not slacken in the second half of the tenth century and even continues into the middle of the Koryo period, particularly in the large maebul or cliff carvings, which reach a peak of development in early and middle Koryo Buddhist art. These two colossal iron images probably represent the height of iron Buddha casting in Korea, which, as far as we know from surviving works, apparently began in the ninth century during the Unified

Seated iron Buddha, Sowonsa (Namwon City, Cholla Namdo), ht. 115cm.

ABOUT THE AUTHOR

MARYLIN M. RHIE is professor of Art and East Asian Studies at Smith College in Northampton, Massachusetts. She has traveled extensively in Korea and in various parts of Asia for her research on Buddhist art, particularly that of China, Korea, India, and Tibet.

NOTES