(8-4, p. 13)

Henrik H. Sorensen

When entering a Korean Buddhist temple hall for the first time, one is likely to be struck by the profusion of colors and the gay patterns (tanch'ong) painted on the beams, walls and ceiling. Directly opposite the front entrance of the hall, one finds the main altar, and above this altar, behind its Buddha statue or statues, hangs a large multicolored painting. Depending on the type of hall, one may find several altars within the same building, each dedicated to a particular deity or group of deities and each with their respective paintings.These religious paintings, called t'aenghwa in Korean, meaning "scroll-painting," constitute a genre of their own within Korean Buddhist art.

First Used

It is not know when t'aenghwa first were used in Korean Buddhist history, but a glance at the development of Buddhist paintings in China suggests that the t'aenghwa tradition originally was part of the Buddhist heritage transmitted to the Korean peninsula during the Three Kingdoms period. However no extant paintings date back further than the late 13th century, that is to the late Koryo dynasty (936-1392).

Today the great majority of Koryo t'aenghwa are preserved in Japanese collections. The most notable is the treasure house of Chion-in, the famous Pure Land temple in Kyoto, which holds a significant number of very fine paintings. Other Koryo and early Yi t'aenghwa are scattered throughout Japan, with at least one important private collection in Kyushu. A smaller quantity of paintings can be found throughout the world, with museums in Berlin, Cologne and Boston owning some of the best. Unfortunately, the number of extant Koryo paintings in Korea itself is limited to a mere handful. It is estimated that there are no mo re than 100 Koryo and early Yi t'aenghwa extant all told, making them extermely rare and precious.

Plate 1. Nosana Triad (Koryo dynasty, fourteenth century); ink, color and gold on silk; 123 x 82 cm. Courtesy of Museum of Ease Asian Art, Cologne.

Oblong Scrolls

Most of the early t'aenghwa were painted in mineral colors on fine silk-gauze which was mounted on paper, often in several layers. Nearly all the Koryo paintings are in the form of oblong hanging scrolls, and, when compared with the later developments, usually are of more modest size. These early t'aenghwa, without exception, show a high degree of sophistication both with regard to composition, subtlety of brush strokes and use of colors. Often gold has been applied gener-(8-4, p. 15) ously to highlight the paintings, indicating that considerable cost went into their production. Indeed the inscriptions on a number of these early t'aenghwa indicate that they were commissioned by the Korean court (pl. 1).

Compared to the highly refined works of the Koryo and early Yi periods, the later Yi t'aenghwa do not come up to the same high standard with regard to materials, technique and composition. However, what the Yi paintings generally lack in subtlety and skill they compensate for in terms of variation and size. From the social point of view, the Yi paintings also reflect the changing status of Buddhism, which from its noble position as the national faith during the Koryo was relegated to the lowest status in the Confucian society of the Yi dynasty. Except for the early years of the period, when t'aenghwa still were made with costly materials, the Yi paintings use less gold and the silk gauze to a large extent is substituted with hemp gauze or even coarse hemp cloth. The use of colors becomes much more liberal and, one may say, in some cases even glaring.

Several Layers

The vast majority of Yi t'aenghwa are painted on a heavy canvas made of several layers of cotton gauze which is mounted onto a wooden frame and treated repeatedly on both sides with a mixture of glue made from oxhide and alum. The canvas is then taken off the frame and painted. Finally five layers of paper are pasted on the back of the t'aenghwa. Although many of the Yi paintings are done in the form of hanging scrolls, with wooden poles at either end, most of them have been remounted on the square wooden frame and in appearance are much like the canvases of traditional Western oils.

Not the Same T'aenghwa painting never was considered an art in the same way scholarly painting was, but has always been a craft handed down from master to pupil like cloth-dyeing or carpentry. As is also the case with Korean traditional architecture, there exist no manuals for t'aenghwa. The tradition has preserved its models through the transmission of paper stencils. A stencil is made by drawing the desired image on fine rice paper which then is perforated along the lines of the image. When the t'aenghwa painter wishes to commit the desired image to his canvas, he simply places the stencil on top of it and pours fine charcoal dust on the perforated lines. When the stencil is removed the trace of its image is left on the canvas. Then the lines are traced in black ink and the image is ready to be filled out with color. Large paintings or complex compositions may be

Plate 2. Yong San (Yi dynasty, eighteenth century); ink and color on silk; 214 x 186 cm. Songgwang Temple, Cholla Province.

From the information gathered from the few present-day masters of t'aenghwa painting, it appears that most painters belonged to the secular world during the Koryo and early Yi dynasties and transmitted their craft from master to pupil. Probably around the end of the 16th century, monkpainters apparently took over the transmission of the tradition, and with few exceptions it has remained thus down to the present. Today there are very few real masters of t'aenghwa painting remaining, and unfortunately it seems as if this timehonored tradition shall fade within the next one or two generations .

Plate 3. Three Bodhisattvas. Detail of Plate 2.

Wide Range The subjects depicted in the t'aenghwa all come from the world of Buddhism with the possible exception of the Mountain Spirit, and include all the various Buddhas, Bodhisattvas, gods, protectors, and major themes from the Buddhist canonical scriptures as well as paintings of famous monks and patriarchs. These subjects can be divided into

Major Group

The major group of t'aenghwa which we shall discuss here pertain to the Buddhas. In addition to paintings of the historical Buddha Sokkamuni (Sakyamuni), the Mahayana tradition to which Korean Buddhism belongs venerates a large number of other Buddhas. Most popular among these other Buddhas are Amit'a (Amitabha), the Buddha of the Western Pure Land, Yaksa (Bhaisajyaguru), the Medicine Buddha, and last but certainly not least, Nosana ( Vairocana) Buddha, the Cosmic Buddha and hero of the Hwaom (Avatamsaka) Sutra. Plate 1 shows a seated Vairocana Buddha on a lotus throne, flanked by the Bodhisattvas, Munju (Manjusri) and Pohyon (Samantabhadra). This painting is a good example of a classic Koryo t'aenghwa. Noted are the delicate lines in the garments of the figures, the abundant use of gold, the transparent halos and the intricate patterns in the various adornments. Like many of the Koryo paintings, the silk has darkened (8-4, p. 17) considerably, causing the lines to become indistinct in several places.

Plate 3. Three Bodhisattvas. Detail of Plate 2.

Celebrated Theme One of the most celebrated themes depicted in the Buddha group of t'aenghwa is that of Yong San (Vulture Peak). According to tradition, Yong San was the mountain on which Sokkamuni gave many of his famous sermons. Plate 2, painted in 1725, presents one such Yong San assembly in which the Buddha sits in the center of the painting surrounded by the eight groups of beings, i.e. humans, gods, semi-gods, dragon-spirits, eagles, demon-protectors, etc. in addition to monks, Bodhisattvas and other Buddhas. Plate 3 is a detail of the three larger Bodhisattva figures in the righthand side. Although figures in this painting are rather stereotyped, they nevertheless are executed in very fine detail. Below the three Bodhisattvas in Plate 2, there is a band playing celestial music honoring a Buddha.

Plate 4, an Yi t'aenghwa from the late 18th century, shows the Buddha Amit'a in his Western Paradise. His hand gesture (mudra) indicates that he is instructing the assembly. Again the majesty and grandeur of the composition is amplified by the powerful play of colors and patterns, making it almost impossible to take in the whole painting. Focusing on one particular figure in the painting, the choice falls on Kwanseum (Avalokitesvara) Bodhisattva at the bottom of the throne to the right (pl. 5). Kwanseum, undoubtedly the most popular Buddhist figure in Korea, is standing in a serene mood holding before him the kundika, the water pitcher, and in the crown he has a miniature figure of Amit'a, another of his characteristics. Like the other figures in this remarkable t'aenghwa, the Kwanseum figure is executed in firm yet delicate lines, and despite its gaudy and colorful attire succeeds well as an image of transcendence.

Celebrated Form Among the many forms which Kwanseum takes in East Asian iconography, none is more celebrated than the "Willow Kwanseum." Plate 6 shows one such painting from the late Koryo or early Yi dynasty. It is interesting to note that most Koryo renderings of this Bodhisattva are in the form of the "Willow Kwanseum." All the details in the painting are done with the utmost skill, and the transparency of the robes and veils makes the figure purposefully ethereal and subtle. Also, worthy of notice is the glass bowl in which the kundika with the willow branch is placed. The scene depicts Kwanseum Bodhisattva in his abode on the mountain-island

Plate 10. Set of Palsang (eight) Paintings (Yi dynasty. eighteenth century), ink, color and gold on silk; 123 x 120 cm. Songgwang Temple, Cholla Province.

Extremely Popular Next to Kwanseum, Chijang (Ksitigarbha) Bodhisattva is also an extremely popular figure among Korean Buddhists. This Bodhisattva devotes all his activities to saving sentient beings destined to the sufferings of hell. In Plate 7, he is shown in an early 18thcentury version with his

Plate 5. Kwanseum Bodhisattva. Detail of Plate 4.	Plate 6. Willow Kwanseum (Late Koryo to early Yi dynasty); ink, color and gold on silk; 98 x55 cm. Courtesy Museum of East Asian Art.

Plate 7. Chijang with Assembly (Yi dynasty, eighteenth century); ink, color and gold on hemp; 140 x 180 cm. Songgwang Temple, Cholla Province.

Plate 9. Sinjung Painting (Yi dynasty, first half of nineteenth century); ink and color on hemp; 100 x 60 cm. Hwaom Temple, Cholla Province.

Plate 8. Miruk Bodhisattva Banner Painting (Yi dynasty. second half of nineteenth century); ink and color on coarse hemp cloth; 1500 x 400 cm. Chikji Temple, Kyongsang Province.

Huge Banners Not all the Buddhist paintings are meant to be hung in temple halls. Some are actually made as huge banners to be displayed in the open on Buddhist holidays and on special occasions. Shown in Plate 8 is one such banner-painting, normally called kwaebul (Hanging Buddha). It depicts the Bodhisattva Miruk (Maitreya), who is destined to become the future Buddha. This painting is displayed in connection

Another large group of t'aenghwa is that of Dharma Protectors (lokapalas). In the Korean t'aenghwa tradition this group is perhaps the most varied and confusing, as many of the figures shown in these paintings are difficult to identify. These paintings, usually known as Sinjung (Host of Spirits), come in many different versions, each containing from 10 up to 108 figures. Traditionally the Four Heavenly Kings are the protectors par excellence in Buddhism. However in the t'aenghwa tradition they occur rarely as individual paintings, and are usually found as part of the various Buddhas' retinue. The main figure in the Sinjung paintings is the god Indra, usually depicted as a Bodhisattva with a halo and a richly adorned crown and wearing long flowing robes. Sometimes, he is accompanied by the other god Brahma and a host of celestial officials and heavenly fairies (apsaras).

Spirit Protectors The spirit protectors in the paintings which constitute the actual sinjung are headed by the Bodhisattva T'ongjin, a warrior clad in Chinese T'angdynasty uniform and wearing a winged helmet on his head. As an iconographic model he may be identified with Wei-t'o of the Chinese Buddhist pantheon. The other spirit generals or demon kings are usually made up of the eightfold host, i.e. humans, gods, titans (asuras), heavenly eagles (garudas), dragons (nagas), demons (rakshas ), great snakes (mahoragas ), and heavenly musicians (gandharvas), or sometimes instead in groups of various spirits according to a particular scripture in the Buddhist canon. Plate 9 shows one such Sinjung painting of a more modest kind. Here Indra is flanked by two celestial officials clad in the garb of Confucian ministers and above are four divine youths. On each side of the

Plate 11. Sokkamuni as a prince beholds Death. Detail of Plate 10.

General Types

In addition to these three major groups of t'aenghwa, there exist a number of other general types which are connected to a particular theme or doctrine in the canonical literature. One of the most famous of these groups is the set of eight paintings, the so-called Palsang, which depict the life and career of the historical Buddha. Plate 10 shows the fourth painting of this series. The subject there is Sokkamuni's life as a prince before he decides to leave the homelife. The main scenes of this painting of course are devoted to a rendering of the four important episodes in his life which led to his final renunciation.

Shown in Plate 11 is a detail of the fourth painting, and shows the scene where the prince journeys out through the palace gate and meets a funeral procession. The prince is seated in his carriage, a kind of palanquin, about to leave the palace. It is interesting to see the Korean costumes worn by the figures in the scene.

Plate 12, which is a detail taken from the seventh painting in the series, shows Sokkamuni right after his enlightenment, when manifesting as Vairocana or Rocana Buddha. The Buddha with his hands in the characteristic mudra of Vairocana is flanked by the Bodhisattvas Munju and Pohyon. Note that Vairocana as a iconographical model is repeated in the painting shown in Plate 13.

Universal Panorama

The importance of the Hwaom Sutra in Korean Buddhism is firmly reflected in the t'aenghwa tradition. While it is relatively common to find paintings with Vairocana Buddha, the main Buddha of this scripture, there exists a type of t'aenghwa which is devoted to a presentation of the entire universal panorama according to the teaching of the Hwaom Sutra. This type of painting is known as "Hwaom-kyong pyonsangto," which may be rendered as the Transformation Chart of the Avatam (8-4, p. 21) saka Sutra. In effect it is a veritable mandala or "cosmic diagram." This kind of t'aenghwa is quite rare and no more than four paintings are known today. The most famous examples are those of Songgwang Temple and Sonam Temple situated close to each other in Cholla Namdo near the town of Sunch'on. The painting reproduced in Plate 13 is that from Sonam Temple, dated to 1780. Being an orgy of minute details and colors, this mandala is an attempt at recreating the major episodes following the narrative of the Hwaom Sutra. These episodes occur in nine teaching assemblies which take place in seven different locations, including the Buddha's place of enlightenment, Mt. Meru, the axis of the universe and various celestial realms.

Each assembly is focused around a main image of Vairocana Buddha, flanked by the Bodhisattvas Munju and Pohyon, and surrounded by a host of other Bodhisattvas and other beings. In this particular painting the repeated use of stencil "modules" is evident. Often the main figures only deviate in such minor details as adornments or lightrays, etc. Deviating from this stereotype is the section which depicts the Gandhavyuha Chapter (lower lefthand corner) mentioned in the discussion of Plate 6.

Plate 14 shows the Bodhisattva Munju as a youth sitting within a "magic" stupa. Standing outside to the right the Bodhisattva is repeated in his "normal" attire. Below this scene seated in rows, each with a tiny figure of Sudhana in front, are all the other Buddhist teachers, from whom he takes instruction on his way to enlightenment.

Plate 12. Sokkamuni manifesting as Nosana after his enlightenment. Detail of 7th painting.

Pictorial Guide

While it seems evident that a t'aenghwa such as the "Hwaom-kyong pyonsang-to" was devised with the purpose of presenting the faithful with a pictorial guide to the voluminous Hwaom Sutra and in a sense also to its teachings, other types of paintings have an explicit didactic function. The most obvious of this type of t'aenghwa are those which represent the hells and their inmates. The overt purpose of the hell paintings is to imbue in the believers a dread of committing evil karma which is said to lead to unfortunate rebirths, ultimately represented by the Ten Great Hells.

In the traditional Buddhist literature quite a number of scriptures describe the sufferings awaiting a "sinner" in these hells. The t'aenghwa as a visual representation of such teachings is particularly well suited. In the t'aenghwa tradition the hells are conceived of as being ten in number, each headed by a Hell King or Judge. The concept of hell in the East Asian tradition of course reflects the judicial procedures originally taken from medieval Chinese

Plate 14. The youthful Munju in the Stupa. Detail of Plate 13.

Plate 13. Hwaom-kyong pyonsang-to (Yi dynasty, eighteenth century); ink, color and gold on silk; 280 x 250 cm. Sonam Temple, Cholla Province.

Plate 15. Hell Kings. One painting out of a set of two (Yi dynasty, first half of eighteenth century); ink, colors and gold on hemp; 180 x 280 cm. Hwaom Temple, Cholla Province.

Plate 16. Kamno-wang painting (Yi dynasty, eighteenth century); ink and color on silk; 260 x 300 cm. Ssangye Temple, Kyongsang Province.

Plate 17. Mourners and the Two Pretas. Detail of Plate 16.

Plate 19. Set of 11 Son Patriarch Paintings (Yi dynasty, eighteenth century); ink and colors on hemp. 141 x 135 cm. Sonam Temple, Cholla Province.

Salvation Possible However, a deceased person, despite his or her bad karma, need not necessarily go to hell. If his relatives pray for his future rebirth in a fortunate state and make substantial offerings to the Buddhist community the person may be able to avoid hell. The monks in turn recite sutras and hold ceremonies there by creating merit on behalf of the dead person. The power of the

Plate 16 is a t'aenghwa generally known as the "Kamno-wang pyonsang-to" or "Sweet dew" painting and depicts the teaching of the Urabon Sutra, which describes how to avoid (8-4, p. 24) hell. The center of the painting is occupied by the altar which holds the offerings to the Buddhas, and above that floating in the sky is the host of Buddhas to whom the offerings are directed. At the same time the Buddhas represent the state of pure rebirth beyond the world of suffering (samsara).

The two large demon-like figures below the altar are pretas or hungry ghosts who also receive a special part of the offerings. To the left of the altar is a gathering of Buddhist monks in the process of carrying out the ceremony for the deceased, Plate 17. In front of the monks painted in smaller scale are the mourning male relatives of the dead person. Note the characteristic hats worn by men for mourning. Opposite the two large pretas to the right are the female mourners including friends, etc. The rest of the kamno painting shows various scenes from samsara, depicting various aspects of human occupations. In effect these scenes combine to make out life in the mundane world. The idea is to imbue the viewer with a respect and awe of death to such an extent that he does not waste or ruin his life with either nonessential or evil activity.

Plate 18. Pojo Kuksa (Yi dynasty, eighteenth century); ink,, colors and sparing gold on silk; 135 x 77 cm. Songgwang Temple, Cholla Province.

Buddhist Masters

Another large group of t'aenghwa is devoted to the various historical and semi-historical Buddhist masters throughout the ages. This group may include both Indian, Chinese and Korean masters. Shown in Plate 18 is one such painting out of a series of ten, depicting the thirty-four patriarchs of Son (Ch'an) Buddhism. According to tradition, the first twenty-eight of these masters were Indians and the remaining six were Chinese. Talma (Bodhidharma) and Hyenung (Hui-neng) are the twenty-eighth Indian and the sixth Chinese patriarch, respectively. The three patriarchs in Plate 18 are Taohsin, the fourth Chinese patriarch Hung-jen, the fifth patriarch and Huineng, the sixth and final patriarch in the line. The scene to the left shows an attempt on Tao-hsin's life. However, the ordinary accounts of the life of this patriarch do not mention such an incident. Perhaps the t'aenghwa painter has confused this with Tao-ming's attempt at killing Hui-neng in order to get the patriarch's robe and begging bowl, the symbols of transmission. The scenes in which the two other patriarchs are placed are neutral with regard to episodic representation. Again the less important figures(s) is painted on a smaller scale than the important ones. The background on which the figures are placed is a stylistic garden with bamboo, old trees and strange rocks. Despite the dramatic incident in the left part of the painting, (8-4, p. 25) the t'aenghwa as a whole breathes an air of detachment and serenity. The round cluster pattern on the robe of Hui-neng is characteristic of patriarch paintings from the first half of the nineteenth century.

National Master

Plate 19 also belongs to this group of Buddhist masters, and is a protrait of National Master Pojo of Chinul (1158-1210), who is one of the most important Son monks in the history of Korean Buddhism. This kind of t'aenghwa is closely connected with ancestral portraits in terms of function, but only rarely do they reproduce the original features of the master in question. The "religious protrait" is foremostly intended to invoke the master's spiritual attainments and to serve as a paradigm for the tradition. As it is, it is in this group of t'aenghwa that the largest number of stereotypes occur. Despite this, once in a while one comes across very fine individual patriarch portraits such as the one shown here.

The Pojo portrait is the first out of a set of sixteen t'aenghwa depicting the line of masters at Songgwang Temple. Pojo is shown in the way most Buddhist masters appear in the t'aenghwa, namely seated in a large chair. In his hand he holds a staff shaped as a dragon, a sign of spiritual authority. His face is serene, bespeaking his lofty attainment of the Buddhist truth. The little gold which has been applied to the painting enhances the dark and solemn figure to a considerable extent.

Mountain Spirit Included in the Korean Buddhist pantheon are a number of figures which originally belong to indigenous Korean shamanism. The most important of these "borrowed" figures is the Sansin or Mountain Spirit. Plate 20 shows a typical rendering of this popular deity in the shape of an old man. Attended by a boy and a girl the Mountain Spirit takes a stroll outside his cavernous abode accompanied by his faithful tiger. Most of the extant t'aenghwa

Plate 20. Mountain Spirit ( Yi dynasty, ca.1800); ink and colors on hemp; 90 x 90 cm. Ssangye Temple, Kyongsang Province.

The above is a brief survey of a highly interesting and time-honored Korean tradition. Unfortunately this tradition is rapidly dying out. Despite the fact that a fair number of t'aenghwa can still be found in temples throughout the peninsula, they are in great danger of being lost if there is no attempt to preserve them. Most temples that own t'aenghwa are unaware that they represent a valuable cultural heritage, and consider them solely from the point of utility.

Poor Environment

Many paintings hang in drafty and moist halls or even on the outside of buildings, subjects to a harsh climate as well as poor caretaking. This often results in direct damage to the t'aenghwa or their slow corrosion through mold. Often the paintings have holes burnt in them or stains from the candles of the altar over which they hang. As the t'aenghwa are unique in the world and accordingly ought to be treated as important cultural assets, it is hoped that measures will be taken for their preservation before they are irrevocably lost to posterity.

Henrik H. Sorensen received a Ph.D. in East Asian intellectual history at the East Asia Institute, University of Copenhagen, Denmark. His special field of interest is Korean Son Buddhism and Korean Buddhist art.