(8-3, p. 13)

Marylin M. Rhie

Buddhist sculptures from the early years of the Koryo dynasty (918-1392) form a diverse and intriguing group exhibiting an astonishingly wide variety of styles. The very complexity of the styles creates difficulty in dating and clarifying the developments, traditions, interrelationships and meanings of the Buddhist imagery of this time. Yet the obvious vigor, beauty and productivity of these images testifies to an active and even innovative period in the history of Korean Buddhist art, about which we as yet know relatively little.

In order to clarify some of the obviously complex movements, relationships, and dating problems in early Koryo Buddhist art, this article will first focus on one of the major stylistic groups of early Koryo sculpture, which dates approximately to the second quarter of the tenth century at the inception of the Koryo dynasty. The images of this stylistic group are found mainly in the region from Koch'ang and Mt. Kaya in the southeast to Kangnung near the equally famous Buddhist mountain sanctuary at Mt. Odae in Kangwondo in the central eastern area. Other regional and stylistic groups will be treated in a subsequent article.

Plate 1. Amit'a Buddha (early Koryo dynasty); 750 cm. in height; national treaure no. 222, Mt. Kaya, South Kyongsang Province

Decline of Silla The advent of the Koryo dynasty is in itself an extremely complicated event, involving the decline of Silla in the late ninth and early tenth century until its formal surrender to Koryo in 935 A.D., the short rise of the Later Paekche in the southwest from around 885 A.D. until its final defeat by Koryo at the battle of Ich'on in 936 A.D., and the steady increase of the Koryo kingdom from its inception in 918 A. D. until the unification of the major portion of Korea in 936 A.D. (see map). In Buddhist art there is already a long history preceding the Koryo and various traditions had developed. In the later decades of the Silla, there had been a strong tendency towards regionalization following the weakening of the central government in Kyongju and the increase in the power of local gentry and "castle lords" in outlying regions. Accompanying

In late Silla the demand by the local strong families and castle lords for their own temples, generally supporting a famous master, led to the rather active production of Buddhist images in many areas outside the capital of Kyongju. This constitutes one of the major changes in the patterns of Buddhist art production from the early and middle periods of Silla (ca. seventh and eighth centuries), when many of the Buddhist works were dependent on patronage from the imperial or aristocratic members of the dynasty, centered mainly around Kyongju. In the early years of Koryo, the regional character apparent in the styles of images in late Silla persists and may even be more evident, to the extent that at times it is hard to believe that certain works date from the same period because they look so different.

Other Factors

Besides the tendency to regionalization, there are other factors contributing to this complex situation, including the persistence of established local traditions, the preferences of the patrons, the ideas of the powerful monks in each region and the particular historical circumstances and relationships with other areas and with certain (8-3, p. 15) areas in China.

In fact, the complicated historical, Buddhistic and artistic situation in China in the tenth century during the Five Dynasties period (ca. 906-960) contributed to the complex variations found in Korean Buddhist art of this time. Although domestic developments were the primary governing factors in the creation of Korean Buddhist art, it should be noted that Koryo Buddhism and its arts were a part of the greater world of East Asian Buddhism at that time.

The intentional aspect of early Koryo Buddhist art, which was created by Korean monks and artists who were well aware of movements in Buddhist teachings and art occurring in contemporary China, deserves recognition and should be used for understanding the arts of this difficult period. It will also be seen that Heian period Japan was part of this world and had close ties with Koryo. It is hoped this article will begin to unravel some of these involved relationships and contribute to the understanding of one of the most fascinating periods in the history of Korean Buddhism and Buddhist art.

Map: Map of Korea in the early tenth century, ca. 918 A.D.

King Supportive Wang Kon, later called Koryo T'aejo, the first king of Koryo (r. 918-943), was strongly supportive of Buddhism. Even the first article of his famous Ten Injunctions (Sip hunyo) expressed his view: "The success of the great enterprise of founding our dynasty is entirely owing to the protective powers of the many Buddhas. We therefore must build temples for both the Son and Kyo (Textual) schools and appoint abbots to them, that they may perform the proper ceremonies and themselves cultivate the Way." Wang Kon himself established numerous temples early in his reign, such as the so-called ten temples around Kaesong, the capital of Koryo, which are now only known by recorded name. He is also known to have personally received famous Korean monks when they returned from China with the Buddhist canon in 928

There are some seven records (8-3, p. 16) of known monks returning to Korea from China, most during the 920s. In addition, the Koryo emissary Yunjil returned from Later Liang in north China with 500 Lohan paintings, concrete evidence of official interest in Buddhism as well as the evident availability of Chinese Buddhist art in Koryo through formal diplomatic channels.

From late Silla and into early Koryo many important and learned Korean monks went to China, particularly to south China to study the so-called "southern" style of Ch'an Buddhism, which was the dominant form of Son in Korea in late Silla and flourished even further in Koryo. This background suggests the positive and active environment for Buddhism and Buddhist art in late Silla and especially in the early Koryo period. This is certainly supported by the rather large number of Buddhist images which remain from this period and which can shed even more light on the exact nature of Buddhist activities.

Outstanding Sculptures Two of the most magnificent of Korea's distinctive large stone Buddha sculptures appear to belong to the early Koryo period: the Amit'a (Amitabha) Buddha on Mt. Kaya above Haein Temple (pl. I ) and the Buddha (Amit'a?) at Koch'ang west of Mt. Kaya (pl. 6), the mountain which was a major center of Hwaom and Son Buddhism at this time. The Amit'a on Mt. Kaya, the larger and probably slightly earlier of the two, is an impressively grand image 7.5 meters in height carved in relief on the side of a single giant boulder. Certainly it is one of Korea's best preserved colossal images. Framed by a large circular halo, which bears the faint remains of delicate, closely spaced wavy flame patterns, it was probably once covered by a stone canopy which apparently fell off in recent memory. The image is displayed as a towering figure of broad and powerful proportions and calm

Plate 2. Bodhisattvas, Niche 32 (ca.911-915); 90 cm. in height; north Mt. Fo-wan, Ta-tsu stone cave temples, Ta-tsu, Szechwan Province, China.

The mixture of human and supernatural qualities is one of the major characteristics of early Koryo sculpture and is very subtly manifested throughout (8-3, p. 17) this work, primarily through its incorporation of both natural and more abstract features. For example, the drapery over the lower front of the image is very simply done with only a few selective incised lines, which do not suggest any weight or mass. Also, while the head is round and heavy in appearance, the arms and hands, executed with a particularly graceful shape, seem large but flat.

Colossal Images

The precedents of such colossal images appear in Silla sculpture especially around Kyongju, such as are seen in the late-Silla rock cliff carving of a seated Buddha at Samnung-ge on Namsan. Nevertheless, this early Koryo Amit'a on Mt. Kaya seems even more impressive. Stylistically, it is closely related in a number of specific ways to the statue of the monk Huirang in Haein Temple (pl. 5 ). This latter statue is a rare and important portrait image probably dating ca. 927 A.D., the death date of this monk. In the broad frontal shape of the body, its thick folds of cloth, and the beauty of the curvilinear hem lines, the two styles appear to be rather close. Huirang was the founder of the Pugak subsect of the Hwaom school and was patronized by Wang Kon. He was abbot of Haein Temple, where he is noted for building many halls. It is quite possible, considering these circumstances and the style of the Mt. Kaya Amit'a, that this large stone relief image was part of the increased activity in this area in early Koryo.

Plate 3. Bodhisattva (tenth century); 130 cm. in height; Freer Gallery, Washington, D.C.

Certain Similarities Certain similarities of the Amit'a style can also be seen in Chinese sculptures from the Five Dynasties period (ca. 906-960) which help to confirm the dating of this image and at the same time reveal the international character of contemporary Buddhist art. The Amit'a's somewhat stiff, undefined, but well unified body combined with the graceful shapes and lines and soft features of its fact are characteristic of images dated 911-915 A.D. at the Ta-tsu cave temples in Szechwan province (pl. 2). Also, the particular features of the face, with moderate sized eyes, slightly pursed lips and softly contoured shapes, are noticeable on the ca. 920 A.D. Bodhisattva—image said to come from southeastern Shansi province and now in the Freer Gallery (pl. 3).The smooth body and use of selective incised lines are also similar in both.

The depiction of heavy, naturalistic folds of drapery cascading over the Amit'a's left arm relates to the style of drapery seen over the left arm of the Chinese Bodhisattva image dated 942 A.D. from the Later Chin (pl. 4). Earlier precedents for the large images similarly bulky in shape interestingly appear in such images as the 857 A.D. Maitreya in the main hall of the famous Fo-kuang Temple at Wu-t'ai shan, one of the major Buddhist sanctuaries in China, which seems to have had an impact on Korean Buddhists at various times from the seventh century into the Koryo period. One monk, Haengjuk (d. 916), who studied at Haein Temple, later went to Wu-t'ai shan (see below).

Overall, this Mt. Kaya image successfully achieves a well unified, individualistic, heroic and magnanimous form of great presence. With subtlety and power, complexity and simplicity, it maintains masterfully the typically Korean balance of earthiness and superhuman essence. The quality of solidity combined with grace is characterstically Korean and is distinct from the lighter and more effeminate appearance of Chinese sculpture of this time.

Standing Buddha

By contrast to the Mt. Kaya Amit'a, the other large standing Buddha, located in a rural area on the outskirts of Koch'ang city to the west of Mt. Kaya, is carved completely in the round and, though imposing, has a less grandly broad and masculine aspect (pl. 6). It stands on an ample and well-carved round lotus pedestal and a large circular canopy-halo is placed directly on the head, a practice which became current in the early Koryo period. This image may well be one of the first to employ this particular method, apparently unique to Korean sculpture.

Plate 6. Buddha (Amit'a?) (early Koryo dynasty); 370 cm. in height; national treasure no. 377, Koch'ang, South Kyongsang Province.

Plate 4. Bodhisattva triad (Later Chin, tenth century); 32.4 cm. in height.

Like the Mt. Kaya relief, this image also exhibits a strongly unified aspect in the body. The arms, though relaxed and their individual shape generally indicated, seem to adhere to the main part of the body. The legs too, stiff and without specific knee joints, contribute to the strong columnar effect of the whole image. It is perhaps in the head that the fullest treatment of mass appears and it emerges as the main focus of the figure. The qualities of the gentle, human expression of this image appear concentrated largely in the (8-3, p. 19) head with its proportionate importance and its benign, friendly, and calm appearance. Also like the Mt. Kaya Amit'a, the hands are large and important expressive elements, not only for their meaningful gesture—possibly indicating reassurance of rebirth in Amitabha's Pure Land—but also because of their unusual stylistic qualities. While in the Mt. Kaya image the especially graceful curved lines of the hands and fingers are stressed, in this Koch'ang Buddha the emphasis is on the plump shape and unexpected positioning—especially of the right hand, which hangs at the side and lightly holds the hem of the robe.

Clear Patterns

The drapery of the Koch'ang image is particularly lovely by virtue of the mild movements of its contours and its clear patterns of curved, parallel foldlines. There is considerable variety in the kinds of folds—incised lines, raised rib-folds and step-like pleats—but they all have a lyrical, curvilinear beauty and possess the same sense of a restrained freedom or controlled looseness. The strikingly inventive touch of the broad S-curved fold edge on the left side of the chest is a subtle contrast to the straight edge on the right side of the chest. This kind of curved fold relates in style to the shapes appearing in the Huirang statue in plate 5 and is one reason that the Koch'ang Buddha can also be stylistically dated to around the same time, ca. second quarter of the tenth century.

Although the patterns of the drapery folds and general design of the drapery are descended from Silla sculpture and the plump form is related to sculpture from the late Silla at Hwaom Temple (the statues with the upper pagoda), the style of the Koch'ang Buddha is completely characteristic of the early Koryo, with its magnanimous gentleness and its soft, yielding quality mixed with a slightly rigid and firm underpinning. In China this same style appears most clearly in images of the Hang-chou area in the South, such as are seen in the Bodhisattva images from Yen-hsia tung (pl. 7) dated to the Five Dynasties period, or around the mid-tenth century. It is known that Later Paekche had relations with south China and it is possible that some of the effects of this made their way into the art forms of the regions controlled by, or bordering on, that short-lived kingdom.

Plate 5. Portrait statue of the Monk Huirang (early Koryo dynasty, tenth century); approximately life size; Haein Tenple, Mt. Kaya, South Kyongsang Province.

Rare Example Across town from the Buddha image is a standing stone Kwanseum (Avalokitesvara) Bodhisattva (pl. 8 ). It stands 3.05 meters in height, but it has been broken and repaired in the lower legs and feet so that the figure as it now stands seems somewhat out of proportion. It is a relatively rare example of a stone Bodhisattva from the early Koryo period, as most of the remaining images are Buddhas. This image partakes of the general stylistic movement at this time in Korea and in China, although it does not possess quite the finesse and elegant subtleties of style as seen in the Koch'ang and Mt. Kaya Buddhas. Nevertheless, it is an important work from this area containing some of the more unusual or abstract elements of style noticeable in sculptures from other areas in Korea, such as some from Nonsan-gun, which will be discussed in a subsequent article. It dates a little after the Mt. Kaya and Koch'ang Buddhas, probably ca. mid-tenth century, because of its more formalized style.

Mixture of Elements

The image displays a mixture of elements observable in Five Dynasties sculptures from both the north and south of China. This combination may partly explain the heterogenous appearance of the style. For example, from the images in Cave 261 at Tunhuang dating to the 920s, one can observe similar tight, hard surface planes of the body and face, a long rectangular face with sharp features, and the simple necklace with round jewels (pl. 9). In the Ta-tsu cave, temple images from Szechwan there appears a somewhat coarse style of fold with repetitive parallel pleats and the type of tubular neck with a single crease line rather like the features of this Koch'ang Bodhisattva. In the Hangchou images, one sees a similar bodily shape, with its slightly strange wide shoulders and concave slender arms hugging the body, as well as some of the same kind of stiff regularity in the drapery folds (pl. 7). A triad dated 906 A.D. (pl. 10) reveals images with a somewhat similar head and body style, indicating that the style was current in (8-3, p. 20) China from the early Five Dynasties period.

While combining these apparently diverse elements, the final statement of the Koch'ang Bodhisattva remains one of a rather hierarchical, abstract figure with the benign calmness characteristic of the other images of this region at this time. It also appears to have some pertinent stylistic relation with some Bodhisattva images in Japan dated to the second half of the tenth century, particularly the style seen in the Bodhisattva sculptures of the Enkyoji in Hyogo prefecture (Chugoku region), especially with respect to the stiff and flat folds of the drapery. As a final small but nevertheless interesting point, it can be noted that the necklace of the Koch'ang Bodhisattva is almost identical to one seen on a lion image in the Hwaom Temple upper pagoda, suggesting once again some possible relation with the images of this area.

Plate 7. Mahasthamaprapta Bodhisattva (mid-tenth century); Yen-hsia tung, Hang-chou, Chekiang Province.

Travel to China As previously noted, it is known that many Korean monks went to south China in late Silla and early Koryo and it may be that they were instrumental in establishing some of the relationships seen in the Buddhist art of this period. One monk, Pomil (810-894), went to Kang-chou and returned to Hwaom Temple. He later became instrumental in establishing the Togulsan Son sect in the Mt. Odae region under the patronage of the powerful Kim family, which was descended from the royal house of Silla. Among the ten famous disciples of Pomil, the monk Haengjok (882916) studied at Haein Temple and later went to China, where he trained at Ch'ang-an, Wu-t'ai shan and Chengtu (Szechwan). In 929 A.D. Wang Sun-sik, a descendant of the Kim family, sided with Koryo Wang Kon, thus bringing the Kyongju region into the Koryo fold.

Two seated stone Bodhisattvas (possibly Manjusri and Samantabhadra) from Hansong Temple in Kangnung (on the seacoast east of Mt. Odae) appear to be closely related in style to the Koch'ang and Mt. Kaya Buddhas and they also show a corresponding affinity with the Hang-chou images. The best preserved of the two is now in the National Museum in Seoul (pl. 11). It is characterized by the same kind of solid, well unified form, sense of heaviness, and the overall gentleness and quiet composure as seen in the Koch'ang Buddha. The head, though prominent, is a little different from the two standing Buddhas in that it is long with a small mouth and big jaw. This general type of face is seen also in the Yen-hsia tung Bodhisattva in plate 12, although the Korean figure has a stronger individualistic characterization. The rather lumpy drapery folds, wavy hems of the chest shawl, and the long slender fingers also relate to the style of this Hang-chou Bodhisattva as well as to some figures at the Ta-tsu cave temples from the late ninth century.

Popular Crown The tall crown, thought to have originally held metal ornamentation, may have resembled the ornate crown of the Hang-chou Bodhisattvas as well. This particular crown with its fine detail on the lower rim is seen in many (8-3, p. 21) Bodhisattva images of the tenth century in Japan. The lumpy jewelry and scarf folds, the curved shape of the torso and the way of holding the lotus all resemble the style of Bodhisattvas in a bronze triad originating probably from south China, and dating from the early Five Dynasties period (pl. 13). Certainly images from late Silla in the Kyongju arca, such as the famous seated Bodhisattva at Shinsonam on Namsan, with its heavy body and thick drapery, also indicate the probable connection of the Hansong Temple Bodhisattvas with the sculpture of the Kyongju region. This would not be unusual since the main clan of the Myongju area originally came from Kyongju and these images may well have been influenced by that family's preferences.

Plate 8. Kwanseum Bodhisattva (early Koryo dynasty); 305 cm. in height; national treasure no. 378, Koch'ang South Kyongsang Province.

As with all the images of this group, there appears to be a definite linkage to the sculpture of the Kyongju area in late Silla. But in early Koryo the stylistic traditions of Silla appear to be carried on mainly in sculptures from the Mt. Kaya and Mt. Odae areas rather than in the Kyongju area itself, where the making of Buddhist sculptures appears to have been dormant in the early years of the Koryo. But the Kyongju Buddhist images do suggest the traditions and the stylistic ancestry of this group, as does, to some extent, the Hwaom Temple sculpture.

Plate 9. Bodhisattva (tenth century); 175 cm. in height; Cave 261, Tunhuang, Kansu Province, China.

Kneeling Bodhisattva Another image near Kangnung is related stylistically to the Kansong Temple Bodhisattvas; it is the kneeling Bodhisattva at the site of the Shinbok Temple (pl. 14). It probably dates to the same period (second quarter of the tenth century), but its robust mass and vigorous and soft drapery folds would suggest a dating early in the period. Certain folds on the upper arms are similar to some on the Mt. Kaya Buddha and the curvilinear movements are related to the linear styles of the Huirang statue and the Koch'ang Buddha. Both this image and the Kansong Temple Bodhisattvas have a particularly strong quality of thick mass and fairly complicated and pleasingly mobile heavy drapery. The result is a rather intense naturalism exuding a vibrant energy.

The heavy form and beautiful rippling effects of the drapery hems, which are so excellently executed on this image, even on the back (pl. 14a), are features seen in many Japanese sculptures, (8-3, p. 22) especially of Bodhisattvas, from the tenth century. One pertinent example is the standing Bodhisattva from Tomyoji in Saga on the west coast of Kyushu. In fact, there are quite a number of examples of Japanese sculptures which relate to the style of the Kangnung images in particular.

Plate 10. Stone triad (late T'ang dynasty, tenth century); 43 cm. in height.

Plate 11. Bodhisattva (Manjusri ?); 92.4 cm. in height; national treasure no. 124, Hansong Temple, Kangnung, Kangwondo. Collection of the National Museum of Korea, Seoul

Plate 12. Kuan-yin Bodhisattva (mid-tenth century); Yen-hsia, Hang-chou, Cheking Province, China.

Plate 13. Bronze triad (Five Dynasties Period); Asian Art Museum, San Francisco.

Seated Sculpture

Among these, the seated Fugen (Samantabhadra) sculpture from the Fugenji in Mie prefecture near Ise bay is strikingly similar to the Hansong Temple Samantabhadra image in posture and drapery depiction (and possibly even in iconography) and the two standing Bodhisattvas from the Bukkokuji in Shimane (on the western coast of the Chugoku area near Izumo, where, according to studies by Prof. Donald McCallum, there was a considerable community of Koreans from the seventh century onward) also reflect the style of these Kangnung Bodhisattvas. Their relations with Korea will be discussed further in a future article, but it is interesting to note here that many of the Japanese images of the tenth century appear closer to the vigorous naturalism of the Kangnung images than to anything known in China at this time. This connection also appears most strongly in images from the western coast of Honshu and Kyushu and near the Inland Sea area, all regions that very probably had sea communications with Korea, some probably out of the port at Kangnung.

The iconography of the Shinbok temple image is a little unusual and puzzling. The figure is positioned directly in front of a pagoda, with which it is no doubt meant to have a special relation. Although traditionally called a Yaksa Bodhisattva, it is generally thought to be a worshipping Bodhisattva holding a lantern or offering and kneeling in front of the pagoda. This posture is much the same, but not identical, to that of a monk kneeling inside a lantern in the famous example at Hwaom Temple, the temple at which the influential monk Pomil stayed before going to Mt. Odae.

Another image of this type (but without the canopy stone on the crown), kneeling in front of a magnificent tall pagoda, appears at Wolchong Temple at Mt. Odae (pls. 15 and 15a). The Wolchong Temple image seems to date later than its Shinbok Temple counterpart by a number of years. It is quite close to the style of the Koch'ang Bodhisattva in plate 8, both of which probably date from around the midtenth century.

Although it is not certain, it may be possible that these two kneeling images represent the youth Sudhana, the seeker of enlightenment in the Gandavyuha section of the Flower Garland Sutra. This particular sequence was becoming increasingly popular at this time in China. These images with the pagoda may represent the episode just before Sudhana's enlightenment, when he is shown the vision of the tower of Maitreya, which these pagodas may represent.

Plate 14. Kneeling Bodhisattva (second quarter of the tenth century); 121 cm. in height; national treasure no. 84, Shinbok Temple, Kangnung, Kangwondo.

Plate 14a. Rear view.   Definite Relationship Constituting a cohesive stylistic group in the early years of Koryo in the region between Mt. Kaya and the Mt. Odae and Kangnung area in Kangwondo, the sculptures presented here are concrete remains indicating a (8-3, p. 23) definite stylistic interrelationship between those areas. This conclusion also seems to be supported by some known histories of contemporary Buddhist monks and important local families.

Plate 15 Kneeling Bodhisattva, 180 cm. in height; national treasure no. 139, Wolchong Temple, Mt. Odae, Kangwondo.

Plate 15a. Rear view.   The images of this group reveal a common linkage with late Silla sculptural styles from Kyongju and also with the Hwaom Temple pagoda images. They also tend to correspond closely to artistic movements in China, especially in the south, such as are seen in Hang-chou and in the remains of the Ta-tsu cave temples in Szechwan. There is also an obvious relation, not yet fully recognized, with some tenth-century sculpture in Japan; this relation seems especially strong with the images from (8-3, p. 24) the Kangnung region.

All the images of this stylistic group have a sense of warmly human naturalism in their faces and massive form, but this is most pronounced in images from earlier in the period. The proportions are pleasing and the drapery has a quality of some weight and of a flowing but controlled line. A variety of linear techniques are utilized, generally in a subtle, skillful and harmonious way. Overall, there is a consistently pervasive sense of substance and impressivenes combined with a grace and mildness indicative of the new directions forged in the earl-Koryo period.

Maylin M. Rhie is professor of Art and East Asian Studies at Smith College, where she has been teaching since 1974. She received her doctorate in Buddhist art in 1970 from the University of Chicago. She has also taught at Harvard University and Mt. Holyoke College and has traveled extensively in Asia doing research in Buddhist art.