This article continues the survey of early Koryo Buddhist sculpture, which started in the fall 1987 issue of Korean Culture with the discussion of images from the southeastern area, specifically around Mt. Kaya and Koch'ang in Kyongsang Pukto and in the east-central (Myongju) area around Mt. Odae and Kangnung in Kangwondo.' In this and the next article the focus shifts to the west-central region, Ch'ungch'ong Pukto and Ch'ungch'ong Namdo, including present day Kyonggido. Because this area contains probably the most complicated and diverse examples of Koryo Buddhist sculpture, the images of this area will be divided into compatible stylistic groups for discussion. This article concentrates on several groups of images from Ch'ungch'ong Namdo and the Ch'ungju area of Ch'ungch'ong Pukto (see map).

New Koryo Dynasty

With the establishment of the capital of the new Koryo dynasty in Kaesong this region had closer contacts with the center of national activity than it had enjoyed during the preceding Silla dynasty. No doubt the effect of Wang Kon's (Koryo's first king, r. 918-943 A.D.) policy of patronizing Buddhism and encouraging monastery construction projects extended beyond Kaesong to this nearby region, if not directly through the king's intercession, then through that of powerful official, noble and military families. This area must have been considered strategically important to the new nation because of its proximity to the capital and its buffer position between traditional Silla and Paekche territories. This importance would be natural, considering the policy of harmony espoused by Wang Kon to help stabilize the country and create peace in the new nation after years of warfare.

It is known Wang Kon drew upon the powerful influence of Buddhism in order to implement this policy. He not only created special positions for Buddhist officials in the government (9-2, p. 18) bureaucracy and built several royal monasteries, but also consciously combined traditional folk beliefs and Buddhism in his writings and memorials.

Ch'ungch'ong Namdo:
The Kaet'aesa

One important and, on many accounts, unique historical case in point is Wang Kon's construction of Kaet'aesa in Nonsan-gun in the southern part of Ch'ungch'ong Namdo. 2

Temple of Opening Peace

Kaet'aesa, meaning "Temple of the Opening of Peace," was built not only near Puyo, the old capital of Paekche, but also in the shadow of Mt. Yonsan, near the site of the bloody final and decisive battle between Later P'aekche (885-936 A.D.) and Wang Kon of Koryo in 936 A.D. from which Koryo emerged the victor and eventual master of all Korea. Afterwards, in a memorial written by Wang Kon himself, he changed the name of the mountain to Ch'onhosan, meaning "Heavenly Guardian Mountain," and ordered the founding of Kaet'aesa.

Map of Central and South Korea with Early Koryo Sites.

In this historic memorial Wang Kon relates the circumstances of this situation:

The people were not able to escape from distress and anguish. Because of the fighting and calamity they were destitute and miserable without firm guidance... To Heaven I vowed: I will destroy and subjugate the wicked bandits and rescue the people from dire misery. I will let them work and farm freely at the places where they live. Depending foremost upon the might of the Buddha from above and upon the dignity of Heaven and the divine spirits for support, for the last twenty-some years, I have been attacking to the south and the east for 1, 000 li, in the midst of arrows, in sea battles, fighting with fire, and at times using shields and spears as my pillow. In the ninth month of the pyongsin year (936A.D.) at Sung-son Fort, the formidable (Later) Paekche army collapsed like melting ice before my forces and various groups of vicious bandits were also tamed. The sound of victory was rolling through the sky and shouts of joy were shaking the earth... The bandits in the forest and the outlaws in the mountains returned to me after repenting of their crimes... Since my purpose was to punish the criminal, help the weak, and lift up the fallen, I did not invade the rights (of the people) even to the extent of touching a (9-2, p. 18) single hair of their heads or taking away even a single blade of their grass. . . Recompensing the Buddha's guidance and repaying the help given to me by the guardian spirits of the mountains, I ordered my official.. to erect a Buddhist temple. I hereby also rename the mountain Ch'onho and I name the temple Kaet'ae. May the Buddha guide me by his might and may the power of Heaven support me.

Temple Construction

The temple construction began in 936 A.D. and was completed by 940 A.D. At the dedication of the temple in the twelfth month of 940 A.D., a great Hwaom ceremony called the Hivuom Pophoe, and a reading of Wang Kon's memorial took place. As a special imperial temple, or "Chinjonsa," this temple is said to have retained Wang Kon's portrait, an honor of particular preeminence. Since most imperial temples were built around Kaesong, Kaet'aesa is an unusual case for that period time.

Plate 2. Standing Buddha (Koryo dynasty, tenth century), Kaet'aesa Temple; 415 cm in height

Clearly the king took special interest in this temple as commemorating his victory over the people of that area. The fact that the temple was built near the battlefield implies that it was also built on behalf of the dead soldiers as well, a time-honored practice in East Asia. Built also as his avowed expression of gratitude for the help of the Buddha and the heavenly spirits in his victory, this temple displays Wang Kon's strong faith in Buddhism and in (9-2, p. 20) his idea of upholding Buddhism and the indigenous or shamanistic tradition of Korea.

Plate 3. Right Attendant Bodhisattva (Koryo dynasty; tenth century); 312 cm in height, Kaet'aesa Temple.

Stone Images

The triad of large monumental stone images now surviving at the temple in a modern hall is believed to have been made for Kaet'aesa between 936-940 A.D. (pls. 1-4). The triad is composed of three standing images: a main Buddha and two Bodhisattvas. Some scholars think that this triad is Pirosana (Vairo cana Buddha) accompanied by Munsu (Manjusri) and Pohyon (Samantabhadra) Bodhisattvas, often the main images in Hwaom temples. Because the inauguration ceremony at Kaet'aesa was a Hwaom one and several later monks at the temple were known to be of the Hwaom sect, it is thought by some that Kaet'aesa was affiliated with that school. It is, however, also possible that the images may be Amit'a Buddha with his two great Bodhisattvas, Taese and Kwanseum, images frequently made for the benefit of the dead. The mudras of the Buddha are suitable to an Amit'a Buddha and the appearance of the two Bodhisattvas are characteristic of Taese and Kwanseum. The identification of this triad needs still further investigation.

The images had been broken and partly buried until they were recovered and repaired in the modern period. Aside from the recent replacement for the lost head of the Buddha's left attendant and some repair by cement to the Buddha image, including the fingers of the left hand and patching together of the torso, the images retain their original forms. Although the style of these images seems unusual and at first glance may appear somewhat crude and primitive, the work is actually quite sophisticated. Despite their almost unfinished look the images of this triad appear ingenuously naive and have an amazing stature and complexity.

Large Figures

The figures are all impressively large and nearly of equal size. Each one is noticeably blocky in shape with a stiff body, large, squared feet, and enormous but soft hands. The proportions are massive and stocky and yet the rather narrow shoulders and sloping planes of the faces impart a gentle aspect. This combination of powerful earthy mass and gentle demeanor is typical of the contrasts often apparent in Korean sculpture. There is some definition of the limbs, especially of the arms, although their shaping is a little imaginative and not strictly in keeping with realism. The upper torsos are indicated to some extent, but rather than muscular modelling there is a smooth curve, especially well defined in the Buddha's left Bodhisattva image (pl. 4).

Plate 4. Left Attendant Bodhisattva (Koryo dynasty, tenth century); 321 cm in height. Kaet'aesa Temple.

The drapery of the Buddha is delineated by vertical stepfold pleats for the undergarment, wide but shallow step-folds for the sanghati robe over the chest, and thick, wedge-like creases over the left arm area (pl. 2). All of the folds have a coarse and lumpy quality. This is true of the Bodhisattvas as well, but their drapery is enlivened with almost surrealistic touches of bent loops of ribbons and scarves (pls. 3, 4). The Buddha's left attendant image, (9-2, p. 21) more ornate than the right attendant, is especially decorated with a thick, twisted rope belt, patterns of fanciful flowers on the garment, and by the curling edges of the scarves which descend at the side of the figure in unbelievable turns defying the dictates of gravity (pl. 4). More attention is lavished on the designs of the jewel ornaments as well, such as the wide floral armbands and thin ring with flowers for the bracelets. The propensity to incorporate flowers in relief as part of the garment design first seems to appear in some late Silla sculpture, such as seen in the Buddha of Simboksa at P'yongt'aek in Kyonggido. Here, however, these flowers are larger, in higher relief, and not uniform, and are depicted with a charming freedom that accompanies and complements the bizarre turns of the scarves and ties. By contrast with the Buddha's right Bodhisattva, the left Bodhisattva would seem to aptly portray the more feminine, compassionate character of Kwanseum Bodhisattva generally portrayed on the left side of Amit'a Buddha.

Plate 5. Kneeling Bodhisattva (Koryo dynasty, tenth century); granite, Choi Sung-eun, Buddhist Art, vol. V, 1980 p. 67.

Distinct Style

Certainly, the style of these images is quite distinct from that of most of the early Koryo images discussed in Part I from the Mt. Kaya and Koch'ang region. This triad lacks the refinements and more elegant proportion and line of those sculptures. Despite this, one can apprehend certain connecting points, especially with the Koch'ang Bodhisattva, which, as discussed in Part I, dates stylistically ca. mid-10th century. The Koch'ang Bodhisattva has a similar stiff form and simplified body shape generally akin to the Kaet'aesa Bodhisattvas. The presence of this stylistic link reveals that there is a certain amount of inter-regionalism at this time, despite a tendency for strong regional differences.

Certain similarities also appear in the images of the Mt. Odae-Kangnung region. For example, the lumpy, soft quality of the drapery folds, the usage of the lock of hair over the ears of the Bodhisattvas, and the smooth planes of the faces, are similar to the style of the Wolchongsa Bodhisattva and are common features in both groups. In this regard it is also interesting to note the presence at the Kaet'aesa of a kneeling stone Bodhisattva (pl. 5) of the same apparent pose as the kneeling Bodhisattvas of the Wolchongsa and Sinboksa in Kangwondo discussed in the previous article. Though related in type and its massive form to those kneeling figures from the Myongju region, this figure obviously partakes of the style of the Kaet'aesa triad in emphasizing the full force of mass through its stockier, heavier and plainer aspect.

(9-2, p. 22) Unusual Style

The crude, blocky, primitive style of figure celebrated in the Kaet'aesa images does not appear, however, in images from the southeast. This unusual style of the Kaet'aesa sculptures could possibly be erroneously viewed as strange or inferior, especially for images commissioned by the king for an imperial temple. Some scholars have suggested this style may relate to the grave site or official sculptures commonly seen from Silla times on. It also may relate to some traditions in seventh-century Paekche sculpture. There may, however, be still other reasons as well. One may be that they reflect Wang Kon's idea to emphasize indigenous, shamanistically oriented traditions together with Buddhism, as expressed in his own dependence upon Buddha and the "Divine Spirits" in his memorial as well as in his famous Ten Injunctions. In this case, a locally inspired style close to the earthy and mysterious power of shamanistic sculptures may have been consciously combined with the more sophisticated Buddhist artistic traditions. Another reason appears to be the connection with new Chinese styles of sculpture, which, as pointed out in my earlier article, were undoubtedly entering early Koryo. This transmission occurred through the movement of Buddhist monks between Korea and China, along with active diplomatic missions and commercial relations.

Plate 6. Seated Buddha from the Wan-fo-t'a (Koryo dynasty, mid tenth century); Chinhua, Chekiang, after Chin-hua Wan-fo-t'a ch'ut'u wen-wu, 1958, Plate 10.

In fact, contemporary Buddhist art in China seems to have been a significant factor in the formation of the Kaet'aesa image style. This is particularly evident in art from the Su-chou region, as represented in the Five Dynasties-period (906-970 A.D.) bronze sculptures from the hoard discovered in 1955 at the site of the Wan-fo-t'a pagoda in Chin-hua, as well as sculptures from the north as represented by the colossal images of Tu-lo-ssu in the Liao kingdom.

Plate 7. Right Attendant Bodhisattva (Koryo dynasty, tenth century); Kuanyin Hall, Tu-lossu temple, northern Hopei province stucco (after Sekino and Takeshima, Ryokin judai no kenchiku to sono butsuzo, col. II, pl. 11)

Kingdom of Wu

Many of the images from the Wan-fo-t'a hoard date ca. 955 A.D. from the kingdom of Wu (908-978 A.D.). One bronze seated Buddha from this group (pl. 6) is useful in showing how the style of the Kaet'aesa Buddha in particular relates to at least one contemporary type of Buddhist sculpture in south China. There is a rough quality to the step folds, similar sloping shoulders and narrow body proportions, a hesitant, thin and stiff appearance in the arm, and similar drapery folding on the upper half of the body with a low border and a horizontal crossing fold at the waist. Perhaps most evident is the remarkable similarity in the heads with their low, curved hairline, and round heart-shaped face with high cheek bones and flat planes. The unusually long, narrow and shallowly carved eyes positioned close to the eyebrows, which are not highly arched, the small short nose and thick but small mouth also show strong similarities. These are all signs of a generally common style, unique to this time in both China and Korea. It is also known that Koryo had diplomatic relationships with the Wu kingdom at this time and remaining records indicate that there was considerable travel by Korean monks to China, especially to Wu, in the early Koryo period. The four great monks close to Wang Kon, namely Kyongju, Ch'ungdam, Kung-yang, and Ch'anyu had all studied in China, as had most of the eminent monks in the large monasteries of this time. The Samguk yusa notes that the famous monk Poyo sonsa twice visited Wu and Yueh in southern China and "returned with large shipments of Buddhist books." Another source specifically states he returned in 935 A.D. with a copy of the Buddhist canon. Knowing these accounts, the appearance of a stylistic correspondence between the Buddhist arts of these two nations around this time should not be surprising.

Plate 8. Kannon Bodhisattva, Bukkokufi Shimane (Koryo dynasty, mid-tenth century); 164.5 cm in height; wood (after Kuno, Heian shoki chokoku-shi no kenkyu, 1974, Plate 420).

Plate 9. Seated Yaksa (?) Buddha (Koryo dynasty, mid-tenth century); iron, 232 cm in height (after Kukpo, Seoul, 1984, vol.2, plate 76); Changgoksa Temple, Ch'ongynag-gun, Ch'uncho'ong Namdo.

Similar Style

Certain elements in the Kaet'aesa Bodhisattvas, on the other hand, also seem close to the style of the Tu-to ssu images from northern Hopei province under the Liao (907-1125). In early Koryo it is known that many descendants of Koguryo, particularly people from the upper class, entered Koryo from Parhae in the north after its defeat by the Khitans, and this may have prompted an influx of the northern Chinese or Liao style into Koryo. Though these images of Tu-to ssu date ca. 984 AD, a little later than those from Kaet'aesa, the general style could have been current for several decades. In particular the rather stiff body, the usage of the flat strand of hair over the (9-2, p. 24) ear and, most importantly, the strangely abstract and unnatural twists and curls of the hems of the garments, such as seen between the legs of the Tu-to ssu attendant figure in Plate 7, are indications of widely disseminated stylistic ideas and motifs, which were also incorporated in the Kaet'aesa images. It would appear, then, that the Kaet'aesa sculptures, as naive, strange and "local" as they may at first sight appear to be, actually contain some of the newest elements from the most active Buddhist centers in contemporary China. Considering this, we may be able to appreciate the up-to-date features in the Kaet'aesa images and more readily accept them as works of imperial patronage. However, one should also keep in mind Wang Kon's attempt to acknowledge Buddhism in conjunction with Korea's shamanistic faith, and this may also account for the blocky, earthy appearance of the Kaet'aesa style.

Plate 10. Seated Pirosana Buddha (Koryo dynasty, mid-tenth century); iron, 226 cm in height. Changgoksa Temple, Ch'ongyang-gun, Ch'ungch'ong Namdo.

Plate 11. Kuanyin Bodhisattva (Five dynasties period in China, mid-tenth century); 20.86 inch in height. Sackler Museum, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C.

Clear Relationship

As a final point on the Kaet'aesa images, it is important to mention that the style of these images, especially the Bodhisattvas, is clearly related to that of some tenth-century sculptures in Japan. This relationship, not at all well recognized as yet by art historians, can be noted in the two Bodhisattvas at the Bukkokuji in Shimane prefecture on the western coast of Honshu (pl. 8). This same pair was mentioned in Part I as having some stylistic similarities with the early Koryo Kangnung Bodhisattvas as well. The resemblances to the Kaet'aesa images occurs in the blocky form, lumpy drapery, flat heart-shaped faces, strangely curved (9-2, p. 25) drapery (much less than in the Korean example, however) and the type of hair lock over the ear. These are unmistakably common elements in a generally similar style that, however, is uniquely expressed within the context of each country's own internal artistic development. The interconnections revealed by Buddhist art between the East Asian countries at this time is an important subject for further study.

Plate 12. Pirosana Buddha (Koryo dynasty, mid-tenth century); granite, 128 cm in height. Kakyonsa Temple, Kwaesan-gun, Ch'ungch'ong Pukdo.

Changgoksa

At Changgoksa, northeast of Puyo in Ch'ungch'ong Namdo, there are a pair of iron Buddhas, a Yaksa (pl. 9), which is placed on a particularly beautiful early Koryo style stone pedestal, and a Pirosana (pl. 10), which date stylistically to around the mid-tenth century but interestingly reveal a quite different style from the Kaet'aesa images. Though there are some general resemblances to the Kaet'aesa figures in the simplicity of the form and shaping of the faces, there is a stronger adherence to the late Silla stylistic traditions modified by some of the new developments inspired by Five Dynasties Buddhist art in China. The images are more delicately and naturalistically treated than the Kaet'aesa sculptures and the sense of a muscular upper body and regular groups of raised rib folds in the garments are features remaining from the late Silla sculptural styles. However, there is a move towards looser drapery, such as seen in the edge draped over the left shoulder of the Yaksa image in Plate 9, which bespeaks of the naturalism developing in China into what is known as the Sung style.

Gentle Face

The face of the larger image in Plate 9 is rather mild and gentle and relates to the style of some images from the Kwangju region of Kyonggido, as will be shown in a subsequent article, while that of the smaller one in Plate 10 is more stern and yet delicately portrayed. This latter style seems to be one prevalent in China as seen in the face of the Kuan-yin Bodhisattva from the mid-tenth century, probably from north China in Plate 11. Not only are the specific features of large flat eyelids, very short and narrow-tipped nose and tiny bow-shaped mouth with exaggerated curves and down-drawn lines very similar, but the delicate, sharp style is also remarkably akin. This style of face as well as the spiky hair curls of the Changgoksa Pirosana also relates to the iron images of Ch'ungju, which will be discussed below, as does the shape of the body to the Kagyonsa stone Buddha in Plate 12, (9-2, p. 26) also from the Ch'ungju area, although the Changgoksa image style retains a characteristic refinement and delicacy different from these as well as from the Kaet'aesa images. This pair would appear to be the earliest iron images of the Koryo dynasty in the Ch'ungch'ong Namdo area.

Ch'ungch'ong Pukdo:
The Ch'ungju area

One apparently active area in early Koryo was the region around present-day Ch'ungju city in Ch'ungch'ong Pukdo. Several major sculptures dating close to the time of the Kaet'aesa images of the mid-tenth century have a remarkably distinctive style, although some of the factors in the formation of the style are shared in common with sculptures from other regions. Three works will be focused on here: the stone seated Pirosana (Vairocana) Buddha at the Kagyonsa (PI. 12) and two seated iron Buddhas now in Ch'ungju city at Tanhosa (pl. 15) and Taewonsa (pl. 16). Although all three have some stylistic relation to the Kaet'aesa images of ca. 940 A.D., probably the Kagyonsa image is a little earlier and the two iron Buddhas slightly later.

Kagyonsa

The Kagyonsa stone Pirosana Buddha image is well preserved with its beautiful original halo and pedestal, both of which have excellent and well-carved designs (pls. 12, 13). The image has a youthful appearance with a sturdy vigor in its chunky yet curvaceously contoured body The face has the wide and flat aspect of the Kaet'aesa image as well as similarly long, narrow and shallow eyes with their interesting pod-shaped curves. It is garbed in the Indian style sanghati with the right shoulder bare and the drapery appears to cling tightly to the figure. Strong fold lines on the drapery wrapping over the arms and some delicately soft and fluid folds with turned over hems gliding over the legs set up the typical Korean subtle contrasts of opposite elements. Similar curves in the drapery were seen in the Koch'ang Amit'a Buddha from the early years of Koryo discussed in Part I.

Granite Halo

The halo, carved from a single slab of granite, is covered in low relief designs within its two major sections. A total of nine seated Buddhas on lotus pedestals float between the floral head and body haloes and the outer flame patterns. On the back is carved a beautiful shrine in low relief. The pedestal is in three parts with robust high relief designs in the middle section and full yet restrained shapes to the lotus petals above and below (pl. 13).

Plate 13. Pedestal of the Pirosana Buddha of the Kagyonsa.

The halo, pedestal, and image all show a clear lineage from the style of the seated Priosana Buddha of ca. 865 A.D. in the Piro-am of Tonghwasa in Taegu as well as with other stone sculptures of the late Silla period produced in the general region of Taegu, Andong, Yech'on and Yongju (especially around Pusoksa). Even the icongraphy is the type so popular in the late Silla period: Pirosana with the "Wisdom Fist" mudra showing the right hand grasping the index finger of the left hand. While almost every detail follows in this late Silla lineage, the Kagyonsa image actually seems to date from early Koryo. This continuity reveals the persistence in early Koryo of the late Silla tradition, penetrating up into the Ch'ungju area as well as into the Ch'ungch'ong Namdo area, as noted with the Changgoksa images above.

Significant Factor

A significant factor of the Kagyonsa image style is its apparent relation to the style of the famous painting of Amida Buddha in the Hokkeji Nunnery in Nara (pl. 14). This rare early Japanese painting of Amida, which probably dates to the early eleventh century, has a similar style in the curving beauty of the line, the squarish shape of the body with its stiff arm and in the large and square shape of the head. Certainly this stylistic correspondence should be further investigated for its relation with early Koryo Buddhist art. Such a possible relation with Koryo may be particularly interesting in the light of Fujiwara's lack of diplomatic relations with China and the obviously flourishing condition of (9-2, p. 27) Koryo Buddhism under Wang Kon's policy of freedom for and encouragement of the development of various sects in Korea. The Koryosa records the visits of a number of Japanese Buddhist and commercial groups to Koryo in the latter half of the 11th century. These were recorded because they were official matters involving the emperor. It is not too difficult to think that more common, active communication between Japan and Korea probably existed also from early Koryo.

Tanhosa and Taewonsa

Related to the style of the Kagyonsa Buddha is the magnificent life-size seated iron Buddha at Tanhosa (pl. 15 ). But it has also developed beyond the Kagyonsa style into a stunningly powerful new style which is actually one of the most forceful in all of Korean Buddhist sculpture. The body is tough and tightly rounded, the limbs seeming to bulge and expand. Rising from the fairly slender neck of fleshy folds is an astonishing head fashioned of meaty planes and boldly exaggerated features. Enormous, heavy-lidded eyes curve dramatically upward and a drawn mouth pulls the cheek muscles downward towards the semicircular chin. The curls of hair spiral out from the skull like bristling spikes. The lines of the garment, tight to the body, wind around the upper arms like wire. They cross the torso in U-shaped wedges and splay across the legs in unnaturally straight and deep horizontal step-folds. They spread from under the crossed legs as a stiffly pleated bunch, framed on either side by three curved vertical gouges on the drapery at the underside of each leg. The image is unusual, awesome, and yet also appealing and intriguing. It bespeaks of yogis power and calm control simultaneously. As it appears now it is dark, black and shining—a splendid image of a special local style.

Plate 14. Amida Buddha (Koryo dynasty, early 11th century); colors on silk; 73 x 57 5/8 inch, Hokkeji Nunnery, Nara, Japan (after Akiyama, Japanese Painting, 1961, p. 44).

Subdued Version

This style also appears in a slightly more subdued version of smaller size in the Taewonsa seated iron Buddha (pl. 16; the hands are modern repair), and for these reasons may date slightly after the Tanhosa image, which displays a stronger creative spirit. It is, however, a more charming image and pro- (9-2, p. 28) vides important confirming evidence for this flourishing local style.

Plate 15. Seatd Buddha, Tanhosa, Ch'ungju city, Ch'ung-ch'ong Pukdo, iron, H. 1.3 m.

Besides the hint of a lineage in both of these iron images from late Silla, as seen in the Kagyonsa Buddha, there is also a noticeable stylistic connection with the Buddha from the Chin-hua Wan-fo t'a noted earlier in relation with the Kaet'aesa images (pl. 6). This relation with the same Chinese style helps to confirm the early Koryo period dating from both the Kaet'aesa and these two iron Buddhas at Ch'ungju. The main element which these two iron Buddhas have in common with the Wan-fo-t'a Buddha is an important one: the very unusual strict horizontal step-fold patterns on the crossed legs. It is a motif commonly found during this short period in the mid-tenth century in both Korea and China. Other unusual features in this set of iron images are the strangely curving shapes of the eyes with their enormous lids, the small nose and the tensely drawn, scowling shape of the lips. These are no doubt related to the same Chinese style noted in relation to the Changgoksa Pirosana and seen in the Bodhisattva in Plate 11. The stern look so characteristic of these images appears as well in one of Japan's most famous images the Yakushi Buddha of the Shojoji in Fukushima Prefecture in central Honshu. The style is unmistakable and it is probably related to these various appearances noted in China and Korea in the mid-tenth century.

Vital Style

The Ch'ungju area creates an exceptionally vital style of early Koryo Buddhist sculpture, appearing around the mid-tenth century. Such activity may be related at least in part to the presence of the powerful Yu family of Ch'ungju. The queen of Wang Kon and mother of kings Chongjung (r.945-949 AD) and Kwangjong (r. 949-975 AD) came from this Ch'ungju Yu family. It would be quite natural to expect that the region would thereby benefit from this connection and that such benefit may extend to the making of Buddhist temples and images. Several famous monks are also known to have come (9-2, p. 29) from the Ch'ungju Yu family, namely, Chungt'ong Kuksa (Taejo's son) and Chin'gwan sonsa (d. 964 AD). In addition, the monk Popkyong taesa at Kagyonsa noted above, the monk Pop-kyong taesa Chadung (ca. 943 AD) is another noted master in the Ch'ungju area. These evidences further attest to the flourishing status of Buddhism around Ch'ungju during mid-tenth century and they may help to explain the appearance of these remarkable Buddhist images here at this particular time.

Plate 16. Seated Buddha; iron, 98 cm in height. Taewonsa, Ch'ungju city, Ch'ungch'ong Pukdo.

Marylin M. Rhie is a professor of Art and East Asian Studies at Smith College. She has travelled and written extensively on Buddhist art and East Asia.