Although the Hyakuman-to Darani ("One Million Stupa Dharanis"), commissioned by the Japanese Empress Shotoku circa 770 A.D., and the Chinese version of the Diamond Cutter Sutra, dated 868 A.D., are commonly cited as the oldest pieces of printing still in existence, that distinction actually belongs to the Pure Light Dharani Sutra printed in Korea some time around 750 A.D. and discovered in the Shakyamuni Pagoda (Sokka T'ap) at Pulguk Temple, Kyongju Province, in 1966. While it may not be possible to conclude that printing was invented in Korea, the oldest extant examples of both woodblock and movable type printing are of Korean origin, making it hard to deny that Korea was in the forefront in the art of printing between the eleventh and fifteenth centuries.

The history of printing in the East is closely related to the history of Buddhism. In contrast to some of the Indian Buddhists who preferred to transmit their teachings orally, the Chinese placed more emphasis on the written word—nothing had real value unless it was recorded. In addition, numerous Buddhist sutras proclaimed the great virtue of reading, copying, and distributing sacred texts for one's own merit and the salvation of all living beings. Thus, in the seventh and eighth centuries, pious Buddhists of the Far East set craftsmen to work devising the necessary technology to mass produce Buddhist books based on the knowledge acquired from seal carving, stone rubbings, and woodcut prints.

During the Unified Silla Dynasty (668-932 A.D.), there were extensive cultural contacts between China and Korea; new developments in technology were quickly introduced, and in many cases improved upon, in the Korean peninsula. The Chinese writing system, Buddhism, and the widespread use of ink, paper, seals, stone carving, and woodblock printing were firmly established in Korea by the end of the seventh century.

The rapid assimilation and development of printing technology is well documented. The beautiful Avatamsaka Sutra engraved in stone plates under the direction of the monk Uisang at the behest of King Munmu in 677 is as fine as anything produced in China during the same period, and the 1007 Korean edition of the Precious Box Seal Dharani Sutra is superior to the Chinese edition of 975 in every way—carving techniques, art work, paper, and textual accuracy.

Even though it was printed twenty to forty years earlier, the Korean Pure Light Dharani Sutra, measuring 6.5cm. x 7m. with seven or eight characters per column, shows more sophistication than the Japanese Hyakuman-to Dharani. The Hyakuman-to Dharani were printed as stamps, that is, they were inked, turned over and pressed onto the paper. On the other hand, the (3-1, p. 2) Pure Light Dharani Sutra was produced by pure xylography—the blocks were inked and the paper pressed against it. The characters in the Korean sutra are better formed and the printing much sharper.

(3-1, p. 11)

Korea's greatest achievement in the field of woodblock printing was its unsurpassed production of the Tripitaka, the entire canon of Buddhist writings. In this period of Asian history, a country's level of civilization was measured by the depth of its Buddhist culture, and there was a kind of international competition as each nation tried to outdo the others in propagating Buddhist teachings. Within forty years of the first Chinese edition of the Tripitaka, completed over the years 972-983, a similar project was begun in Korea.

Copying or printing the sutras was thought to be the best method of invoking Buddha's aid in protecting the country; the kingdom of Koryo was subject to continual attacks by marauding Mongolian tribes, and its rulers decided to order a printing of the Tripitaka as an offering for the safety of the nation (as well as to impress the Chinese imperial court). Work commenced in 1011, the last year of the reign of King Hyongyong, and was completed in 1087 during the reign of King Sonjong. This version was not simply a copy of the Chinese edition. Unlike the Japanese who faithfully copied texts down to the smallest details—so much in fact that frequently it is impossible to distinguish the Japanese reproduction from the Chinese or Koreans original- the Koreans made numerous improvements in the texts, illustrations, and printing. Unfortunately, the printing of this Tripitaka did not have the desired effect. The wooden blocks were destroyed in the Mongolian invasion of 1231.

While the first edition was in production, the monk Uich'on was busy compiling a supplement to the Tripitaka based on manuscripts he had collected in China. This massive original work, comprised of 1,010 volumes, is known as the Shinpyon Chejongkyo fang Chon grok and was completed in 1090. Unfortunately, the blocks of this book also perished in the invasion of 1231. (Portions of the book and the first edition of the Tripitaka still survive, mostly in Japan.)

The kingdom was stunned by the destruction of the blocks of the first Tripitaka, but not totally discouraged. A second edition was undertaken between the years 1236 and 1251; 81,258 blocks carved on both sides were required to print 1,511 separate works in 6,805 volumes. (The first Chinese edition took eleven years and 130,000 blocks for 5,040 volumes.) The second set of blocks has fared much better than the first, having survived 700 years of natural and manmade disasters, and may still be seen at Haein Temple in South Kyongyong Province. Even today, this version, known as the Tripitaka Koreana (Koryo, or P'alman, Taejanggyong), has the reputation in the academic world as being the most reliable as well as the most finely printed.

Another popular form of religious devotion during this period was sutra copying in gold or silver ink with paintings to illustrate the scrolls; again, the sutras thus dedicated in Korea were equal to the finest Chinese and Japanese examples.

The earliest mention of movable type printing is recorded in Tonguk Yi Sangguk Chip, the collected essays of the Grand Counselor Yi Kyu-bo (1168-1241). It states that he had 28 copies of the Sangjong Yemun, a code of etiquette, printed on movable type around 1234 on Kangwha, the island then serving as the temporary capital. A colophon on a Buddhist work of 1239 declares that it was recarved on woodblocks from an earlier type cast edition, (3-1, P. 13) and several other Korean books have strong claims to have been printed by movable type long before Gutenberg brought out his Bible in 1455. The earliest verified example of movable type printing is the Pulcho Chikchi Simch'e Yojol, a collection of Zen Buddhist sermons, printed in 1377, currently property of the French National Library.

The annals of Koryo tell us that a government Publication Office (Sojogwon) was set up in 1392 by Kongyang, the last Koryo emperor. In 1403, King T'aejong, third king of the newly founded Yi Dynasty, established a Type Casting Bureau (Chujaso). He said to his ministers at that time:

Government officials must have a wide acquaintance with the [Chinese] Classics. They will then be able to lead upright lives, act properly, and bring peace and prosperity to the nation. Since the number of Chinese books reaching us is small, and often badly printed, I hereby order that characters be formed of bronze, and everything of merit be printed. The money for this undertaking will come from my personal funds and private contributions, and not the public coffers.

The best calligraphers of the land were commissioned to provide the models, and within a few months the kyemi-ja type, cast in a copper alloy and consisting of roughly 200,000 characters was complete.

While the Koryo Dynasty patronized Buddhism, the Yi Dynasty was staunchly Confucian. Books published under its auspices were almost entirely comprised of the classics of Chinese literature plus studies of history, politics, and morals. The next advance was the kyong-ja type, cast in 1420. A contemporary account describes the event thus:

The invention of movable type printing has been a great boon, allowing us to transmit to posterity many wonderful books. However, the first font was not entirely satisfactory, being somewhat difficult to work with, and a fresh set was ordered by King Sejong. It was completed in seven months. Printers praised the new type, commenting that it could not be improved, and said that they could now print twenty sheets a day. Soon no book will be unpublished, and no person without learning. Literature and religion will progress daily, and virtue increase. The rulers of the Han and Tang Dynasties, who considered finance and war the first duties of a sovereign, cannot be mentioned in the same breath as our great king.

Despite this glowing commendation of the new type, it was quickly discovered that it left something to be desired. In 1434, the king said to the minister Yi Chang, "The books printed with the type cast under your direction are indeed beautiful, but rather difficult to read owing to their small size. It would be a good idea to cast a fresh set in a larger size." In two months time, the type was ready, and printing was begun. The clarity and preciseness of the type made printing easier than ever before, and it was possible to print more than forty sheets a day.

The type, kabin-ja, included, for the first time, Hangul letters. It remained in use as a standard type until the end of the Yi Dynasty, being recast and slightly modified on six occasions: 1573 (kyeju-ja), 1580 (kyongjin-ja), 1617 (mu-ja), 1668 (mushin-ja), 1772 (imjin-ja), and 1777 (chungyu-ja).

The use of movable type spread back—or was introduced, depending on the view—to China and then to Japan, largely as a result of General Hideyoshi Toyotomi's wholesale plunder of Korea during his invasions at the end of the sixteenth century. Nearly one hundred years passed before Korea was able to rebuild its printing industry. Korea's loss, however, was Japan's gain. They soon began producing books with the newly acquired equipment, culminating in their first edition of the Tripitaka printed with movable type in 1645 A.D.

Despite its small size and relative isolation, Korea's achievements in the development of printing are astounding. No country, East or West, has done more to foster the ultimate form of civilized behavior— the printing and publishing of beautiful books.

John Stevens is a member of the faculty of Buddhist studies at Tohoku College of Social Welfare in Sendai, Japan, and has written a book on "Sacred Calligraphy of the East:"